Utilitarianism is one of the most influential ethical theories, focusing on maximizing happiness and minimizing suffering. But is it a prescriptive view-one that tells us how we should act-or is it merely a descriptive framework that explains human behavior without guiding it?
In this topic, we explore whether utilitarianism is truly prescriptive, analyzing its core principles, applications, and philosophical debates.
1. What Is Utilitarianism?
1.1 The Basic Definition
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that judges actions based on their consequences. The goal is to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
This principle is often summarized as:
- Actions are morally right if they maximize happiness or well-being.
- Actions are morally wrong if they cause unnecessary suffering.
1.2 Origins of Utilitarian Thought
The theory was popularized by Jeremy Bentham and later developed by John Stuart Mill. They argued that morality should be measured by its outcomes, not by intentions or traditions.
2. What Does “Prescriptive” Mean?
2.1 Prescriptive vs. Descriptive Ethics
- Prescriptive ethics (normative ethics) tells us how we should behave. It establishes moral rules and principles.
- Descriptive ethics simply observes and explains how people do behave, without making moral judgments.
If utilitarianism is prescriptive, it means that it actively tells us what actions are right or wrong. If it is merely descriptive, it only explains how people tend to make moral choices.
3. Is Utilitarianism a Prescriptive View?
3.1 Arguments in Favor (Why Utilitarianism Is Prescriptive)
A. It Provides Clear Moral Guidelines
Utilitarianism gives a formula for ethical decision-making:
- Choose actions that increase happiness.
- Avoid actions that cause harm.
This means it prescribes behavior, directing people toward morally preferable choices.
B. It Influences Laws and Policies
Many public policies are based on utilitarian principles, such as:
- Healthcare distribution (allocating resources to save the most lives).
- Legal punishments (reducing crime for the greater good).
- Economic policies (maximizing societal well-being).
If laws and policies are shaped by utilitarianism, it acts as a prescriptive framework for real-world decision-making.
C. It Requires Moral Deliberation
Unlike descriptive theories, which simply state how people behave, utilitarianism requires people to weigh consequences and make moral choices.
For example:
- If lying increases happiness in a situation, should you lie?
- If sacrificing one life saves many, is it justified?
Since utilitarianism demands that people actively determine the best course of action, it fits the definition of a prescriptive theory.
3.2 Arguments Against (Why Utilitarianism Might Not Be Prescriptive)
A. It Describes Human Decision-Making
Some philosophers argue that utilitarianism is descriptive because:
- It explains why people often choose pleasure over pain.
- It reflects how governments make cost-benefit decisions.
- It mirrors how people naturally seek happiness.
If utilitarianism merely describes how people tend to act, then it is not strictly prescriptive.
B. It Lacks Absolute Moral Rules
Unlike deontological ethics (which has strict moral rules), utilitarianism is flexible.
- Lying, stealing, or even harming others can be justified if they maximize happiness.
- There are no absolute moral duties-only context-based judgments.
Since prescriptive theories usually offer clear moral rules, some argue that utilitarianism is too flexible to be fully prescriptive.
C. It Is a Tool, Not a Command
Some thinkers view utilitarianism as a decision-making tool rather than a moral law.
- It helps individuals and societies make ethical choices.
- But it does not necessarily command people to act in a certain way.
If it merely guides decision-making without imposing absolute moral duties, then it might be more descriptive than prescriptive.
4. Utilitarianism in Practice: Prescriptive or Not?
4.1 Real-World Examples
A. Healthcare Decisions
Doctors and policymakers often use utilitarian principles to:
- Allocate limited resources (e.g., distributing vaccines).
- Decide who receives life-saving treatment first.
This suggests utilitarianism is prescriptive because it dictates actions based on ethical calculations.
B. Legal System and Punishment
Utilitarianism supports:
- Rehabilitative justice (punishments that improve society).
- Preventative laws (laws that minimize harm).
Since it influences how laws should be designed, utilitarianism plays a prescriptive role in society.
C. Business Ethics
Companies apply utilitarian thinking to:
- Maximize profits while minimizing harm to employees and consumers.
- Develop sustainable policies that benefit both businesses and the environment.
If businesses actively follow utilitarian principles, that means the theory guides behavior, making it prescriptive.
5. Philosophical Counterarguments
5.1 Rule Utilitarianism vs. Act Utilitarianism
There are two major forms of utilitarianism:
- Act Utilitarianism (each action is judged individually).
- Rule Utilitarianism (following general rules that maximize happiness).
Rule utilitarianism is more prescriptive because it suggests:
- “Always follow these moral rules” to achieve the greatest good.
On the other hand, Act Utilitarianism is less prescriptive because:
- It allows each decision to be flexible.
- There are no fixed moral duties.
Since only some versions of utilitarianism are strictly prescriptive, the debate continues.
5.2 The Challenge of Subjectivity
Another issue is that happiness is subjective.
- What makes one person happy might harm another.
- There is no universal way to measure pleasure or suffering.
If utilitarianism does not offer a fixed moral framework, can it truly be prescriptive?
6. Is Utilitarianism Prescriptive?
Final Answer: Yes, but with Nuances
- Utilitarianism is mostly prescriptive because it tells us how we should act to maximize happiness.
- However, it has descriptive elements since it explains how people and societies tend to make moral decisions.
The strongest case for utilitarianism being prescriptive is its influence on:
- Ethics in healthcare, law, and public policy.
- Moral philosophy and real-world decision-making.
- Guidelines for behavior that prioritize happiness over suffering.
However, its flexibility and lack of absolute rules create room for debate. Some argue that it describes human tendencies rather than enforcing strict moral laws.
Key Takeaways:
✅ Utilitarianism tells us how we should act (prescriptive).
✅ It influences laws, policies, and ethical decisions.
✅ It lacks absolute rules, making it different from strict moral laws.
✅ Some forms, like Act Utilitarianism, are less prescriptive.
Ultimately, utilitarianism blends prescriptive and descriptive elements, but its core function remains guiding moral choices for the greatest good.